Instructional Design: Means to Ensure Effective Learning

By

Dr. Gamini Padmaperuma

In previous issues of this newsletter we briefly mentioned about the importance of instructional design in developing effective learning materials. The instructional design process which we are going to review in this article has relevance in development of both traditional and e-learning materials. Let us look at the instructional design process more closely to learn how it could help design and develop effective learning materials.

What Does Instructional Design Mean?

The term instructional design refers to the systematic and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation. An instructional designer is somewhat like an engineer. Both plan their work based on principles that have been successful in the past – the engineer on the laws of science, and the instructional designer on the basic principles of instruction and learning. Both try to design solutions that are not only functional but also attractive or appealing to the end-user. Both the engineer and instructional designer have established problem-solving procedures that they use to guide them in making decisions about their designs.

Through this systematic process both the engineer and instructional designer plan what the solution - often a finished product - will be like. Both write specifications (plans) for the solutions, but they do not necessarily translate their specifications into an actual product. They often hand their plans to someone who specialises in production (in the case of an engineer, a building contractor; in the case of instructional designer, a media production specialist). This holds true for many instructional designers. However, some designers such as those with production skills (computer programming, video production, or development of print materials), may themselves translate their specifications into the final instructional material. Classroom teachers often implement their own plans. In any event, the designer typically begins the production or implementation once specifications are completed.

To understand the term instructional design further, let us review the meanings of the words instruction and design.

What is Instruction?

Instruction is the intentional facilitation of learning towards identified learning goals. In other words it is an intentional arrangement of experiences, leading to learners acquiring particular capabilities. These capabilities can vary qualitatively in form, from simple recall of knowledge to cognitive strategies that allow a learner to find new problems within a field of study.

What is Design?

Many disciplines use the term "design" as part of their title; examples include interior design, architectural design, and industrial design. The term design implies the systematic or intensive planning and generation of ideas prior to the development of something or the execution of some plan in order to solve a problem. Fundamentally, design is a type of problem-solving and has much in common with problem-solving in other professions. Just as the design of the architects benefits from creativity and imagination, so do the designs of the instructional designer. There is a critical need for imagination and ingenuity in all instructional design activities.


The Instructional Design Process

Another way to define instructional design is to describe the process involved in the systematic planning of instruction. At the most basic level, the instructional designer’s job is to answer three major questions:

1. Where are we going? (What are the goals of the instruction?)
2. How will we get there? (What is the instructional strategy and the instructional medium?)
3. How will we know when we have arrived? (What should our tests look like and how will we evaluate and revise the instructional materials?)

These three questions can be stated as major activities that an instructional designer completes during the design and development process:

1. Perform an instructional analysis to determine "where are we are going to."
2. Develop an instructional strategy to determine "how we will get there".
3. Develop and conduct an evaluation to determine "how we will know when we are there."


Instructional Design Models

To answer the above three questions the instructional designer engages in three major activities: i) analysis, ii) strategy development, and iii) evaluation. These three activities are the essence of most instructional design models. Instructional Design Models or ID Models are visualised depictions of the instructional design process, emphasizing the main elements and their relationships.


ADDIE Model

There are more than hundred different ID models, but almost all are based on the generic "ADDIE" model, which stands for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation, as illustrated in the figure below. Each step has an outcome that feeds the subsequent step.

Analysis --> Design --> Development --> Implementation --> Evaluation

During analysis, the designer acquires a clear understanding of the "gaps" between the desired outcomes or behaviours, and the target group's existing knowledge and skills. The design phase documents specific learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, and content. The actual creation of learning materials is completed in the development phase. During implementation, these materials are delivered or distributed to the target student group. After delivery, the effectiveness of the training materials is evaluated.

Different Phases in the ADDIE Model

As we have sufficiently explored the overall instructional design process, it would now be appropriate to look at each of the five phases in detail. However, due to limited space, we will review only the Analysis phase here. Analysis is the first and one of the most important phases in the instructional design process. The outcome or findings of the Analysis phase serve as the basis for designing instructions. Incomplete analysis or absence of it could lead to poor design of instruction and thereby to failure in achieving expected learning outcomes.

Analysis or Instructional Analysis phase consists of three components. They are: i) analysis of learning context, ii) analysis of learner, and iii) analysis of the learning task (task analysis).
The learning context analysis consists of two steps: identification of the gaps in the achievement of learning outcomes (needs assessment or needs analysis), and identification of the environment under which learning occurs (learning environment).

The second component of the instructional analysis, the learner analysis, is concerned with the learner characteristics that may have implications for the design of instructions.
The third and the final component of the analysis is the learning task analysis. This deals with a detailed and hierarchical breakdown of the learning task to identify the underlying learning objectives and prerequisite knowledge.

Use of the Findings of the Analysis Phase

Combined results of the analyses under these three components provide a basis for designing instructional strategies. According to many educationists, although this analytical approach (of instructional analysis) is well-established, there is a general concern that insufficient time is spent in the analysis of the learning task prior to the design stage. This has resulted in production of large amounts of instructions that do not meet the needs of the target learner groups thus making such instructions useless and ineffective.

The findings of the learning context and learner analyses need to be closely reviewed and their design implications need to be properly identified. That is, the instructional designer needs to incorporate necessary elements or features in his or her design to address the learner concerns identified in the above analyses.

For example, if the learners have difficulties in understanding the written text due to the lack of English language competencies, additional instructional support can be provided by giving them audio tapes which explain the subject matter more clearly. If the learners are a group of distance learners who are concerned with insufficient human tutor support and lack of feedback, an appropriately designed computer-based interactive tutorial can be provided to alleviate their concerns. Further, if the analyses revealed that the majority of the learners do not possess the prerequisite knowledge required for understanding the current lesson, access to optional supplementary material covering the prerequisite knowledge should be provided.


Designer's Imagination and Ingenuity

Access to supplementary materials can be provided by simply placing the related texts in the student library or through a link to another section in a CD-ROM based tutorial or to a web page in case of a web-based learning environment. Often instructional designers are tempted to select or develop computer-aided learning material as a solution to the learning problems. Such decisions should be based on carefully reviewed findings of the instructional analysis, e.g. the learners’ desire to use such medium, their access to and affordability of computers, specific advantages in presenting the learning content as a computer-based material, say, for better visualisation, learner interaction, etc.

The instructional designer's imagination and ingenuity has a great role to play here. Once the instructional needs have been duly identified through the Analysis phase, it is up to the designer to design learning activities, drills and practices, provision of feedbacks and assessments, etc. in the most creative way to engage the learner in the learning process and to make him or her interact with the learning material enthusiastically.


Task Analysis

The third component of the instructional analysis, the task analysis, lays the real foundation for designing instruction. The task analysis breaks down the final objective or the desired learning outcome of a lesson in to a hierarchy of enabling objectives (sub objectives) which the learners need to acquire in order to achieve the desired learning outcome of the lesson. Therefore, the actual design of the instruction needs to be fundamentally based on this hierarchical analysis of the learning objectives. The findings of the other two components of the instructional analysis (learning context and learner analyses) provide useful information to make the design more effective through selection of appropriate medium of delivery, setting the level of lesson complexity, type and level of language to be used, the extent of audio/video clips to be used, etc.

The foregoing discussion demonstrates the high level of importance of the Analysis phase in the instructional design process. The effectiveness of an instruction is highly dependent on the extent and accuracy of the instructional analysis carried out prior to its designing.

The actual Design phase and other three remaining phases of the instructional design process, namely, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation will be the subject of another article.


References:

Andrews, D. H. and Goodson, L. A. (1980). A comparative analysis of models of instructional design, Journal of Instructional Development, 3(4), pg. 2-16

Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., Wager, W. W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design, 4^th edition, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, New York

Rothwell, W. J., and Kazanas H.C. (2004), Mastering the Instructional Design Process, Pfeiffer, San Francisco

Smith, P. L. and Ragan, T. J. (1999). Instructional Design (2^nd edition), John Wiley & sons, Inc., New York.

About the author:

Dr. Gamini Padmaperuma, a former Senior Lecturer at the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL), holds a PhD from the University of Canterbury in New Zealand in Instructional Design for Computer-Based Learning. He can be contacted through email: gaminipad@yahoo.com and website: http://www.gaminionline.com/

Blended Learning: How Can Sri Lankan Rural Masses Benefit?

(This article also appeared in the Daily News on 2006-07-25. Please follow this link if you wish to read it: http://www.dailynews.lk/2006/07/25/fea20.asp)

In an article, which appeared in the January issue of this newsletter, we discussed about e-Learning and what it takes to implement. The term “e-Learning” is now being increasingly replaced by a new term called “blended learning’. Is it just another buzz word or an old wine in a new bottle? Let us verify.

The purpose of this article therefore is to review what blended learning is and verify its relevance in today’s context and how blended leaning could help achieve sound learning outcomes and help Sri Lanka in disseminating knowledge and skills to a larger cross section of its population. While one should not be carried away by different new terms (buzz words) that appear in literature from time to time, it is important to know what these new terms are trying to define and also to know any other terms that try to define more or less the same thing. In fact, another term used along with blended learning to mean more or less the same thing is hybrid learning.

Definition and Scope

Blended learning is defined as a combination of multiple approaches to pedagogy or teaching. Blended learning is achieved through the combination if virtual and physical resources. In other words, it is a blend between e-Learning and traditional delivery methods such as face-to-face meetings (traditional class rooms), printed learning material, etc. Examples include learning situations where both technology-based materials and traditional print materials are used for achieving set learning objectives. Most learners are quite familiar with how their teachers use different delivery methods to achieve certain learning outcomes, e.g. lectures, discussion groups, drills and practices, role plays, audio/video clips, computer-based tutorials, etc. Therefore, it can be said that blended learning is a new name for an old concept or metaphorically, it is a situation where an old friend getting a new name.

Blended learning, when properly designed, can assist and cater to a large cross section of learners in achieving their learning goals by accommodating different modes of delivery, models of teaching and styles of learning. All students do not learn in just the same way; therefore, it is important to provide different methods, media and approaches to learn the same content by different students. The learners when they have a choice would choose the method that will suit them best in terms of preference, accessibility, affordability, etc. Different approaches in delivery are necessary also due to different learning contexts (traditional learning, distance learning or multimode learning, etc.), learner types (auditory learners, visual learners, etc.) and leaning tasks (facts, concepts, principles, procedures, etc.).

Factors Influencing the Blend

The factors that influence the blend of methods and techonologies used to achieve desired learning objectives include the following: learning context, type of learners, learning task, availability and accessibility of technology, learners’ attitudes towards using technology for learning, availability of time for learning, level of language and subject matter proficiency, pace at which learning goals are to be achieved, the pedagogical approaches and instructional strategies used.

The actual making of the ‘blend’ therefore should be based on proper study and evaluation of the learning situation. The study that needs to be carried out in such a situation is called Instructional Design. A typical instructional design process includes five stages; Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. The educationists use the acronym ADDIE to refer to this five-stage process. The most critcal of these stages is the first stage, Analysis. Analysis or the Instructional Analysis serves as the basis for design of instructions and their delivery. The analysis stage typically consists of three components; analysis of learning context, analysis of learner, and analysis of the learning task (task analysis). The selection of the type of instruction and the mode of its delivery should be primarily based on the findings of the instructional analysis. For example, analyses of the learning context and the types of learners will provide information on gaps in knowledge of the learners, learners’ concerns, learners’ background including learners’ preferred styles of learning, learners’ performance levels, language proficiency, learners’ attitudes, learners’ access to and attitude towards technology, learners’ time constriants, learners’ age groups, etc. All these findings have implications on the design and delivery of instructions. For example, if most of the learners are either auditory or visual learners, the design of instruction should include audio and video components.

On the other hand, if the learners are adults who work full time or part-time, face-to-face delivery of instruction is not suitable as the main mode of delivery. In this case the design and delivery of instruction should be made to suit a distance learning environment. Here again, the question arises as to what type of distance learning is affordable to the learner. Does the learner have access to information and communication technology (ICT) where instructions can be delivered in the form of CD ROMs or online through the Internet. If the learners have no access to ICT, then the option will be to provide the learners with print material specially designed for distance learning. If the analysis shows that a good part of the learners have access to ICT, then the delivery of learning content should be made through both ICT and print material. This is just an example of blending different methods of delivery of instruction to suit different types of learners and learning contexts.

The Learning Process

Blended learning has a role to play even when the learners are more or less homogeneous. The discussion of blended teaching and learning methods become relevant when implementation of different steps in the learning process is considered. The different steps that a learner has to go through in order to accomplish a learning task successfully are known as Events of Instruction. Gagne has identified nine events of instruction. They are mentioned here in order to explain how these events can be accomplished using different types of delivery. Delivery types can be face-to-face, online, CD-ROM based, asynchronous discussion forums, synchronous seminars, etc. depending on what the particular event of instruction demands and what the findings of the instructional analysis are. The nine events of instruction are: 1. Gaining attention, 2. Informing the learner of the objective, 3. Stimulating learner’s attention, 4. Stimulating recall of prior knowledge, 5. Providing learning guidance, 6. Eliciting performance, 7. Providing feedback, 8. Assessing performance, and 9. Enhancing retention and transfer.

Due to limited space, it is not possible to discuss here all the events of instruction and explain how different approaches or media could be used to achieve each event of instruction. Let us look at a few events as examples. Let us consider the first event of instruction, gaining attention. The purpose of this event is for learners to focus their attention on the learning task. This event can be accomplished in different ways, i.e. using the traditional methods or media-based methods. We have all experienced this event when our teachers said, “Please open your text books to page 15 and look at question number 1”. On the other hand, in a media-based lesson, the learners attention may be gained in a number of ways; using sounds, graphics (either static or animated), a change in text (bolding, italicizing , colouring, etc.) on the screen. A major concern of the instructional designer at this stage is to include sufficient stimulation in this event to draw leaners’ attention to the learning task. Gaining attention is one event that can be similar across all learning outcomes (learning tasks). The actual selection of method to achieve this event greatly depends on the findings of the instructional analysis.

The Learning Task

The type of learning task, i.e. whether it is a fact, principle or a procedure that is being learnt, too has a bearing on the methods of delivery that can be used. Let us consider the event of instruction involving providing feedback (# 7). Providing feedback in a fact learning situation is relatively easy. The feedback required in this situation is just to say whether the answer is correct or not. This can be achieved through a table of answers at the back of a book, a direct response from a teacher or tutor to say the answer is correct or not, a computer-based tutorial which checks learner’s response against a stored answer and gives feedback saying whether the answer is correct or not, etc. The feedback given through a computer is suitable in situations where a feedback cannot be given by a human tutor. This may be due to the distance between the student and the tutor or due to the size of the student population where it is impossible to give individual feedbacks by human tutors. In situations that involve learning tasks such as problem solving, the feedback may not be one direct answer. In face-to-face situations, method of feedback would be to provide several possible reasons by the human tutor so that learner can attempt various possible alternatives and select the right one to suit the given situation. Also, in a traditional learning setting, feedback can be arranged to be obtained from the co-learners. If the learners do not have the opportunity to meet one another physically, necessary feedback could be provided through a compter-mediated discussion forum where learners and the tutor will be able to review and comment on individual learner’s work. Also, intelligent tutoring systems (ITS), if implemented, can evaluate the learner input and suggest possible routes for consideration of the learner in solving the problem or task. It is the instructional designer’s task therfore to select the appropriate mix of media to ensure effective learning under given learning contexts, types of learners and the learning tasks, etc.

In summary, blended learning (also sometimes called hybrid learning) is the term used to describe learning or training events or activities where e-learning, in its various forms, is combined with more traditional forms of training such as “class room” training. Blended learning can be delivered in a variety of ways. A common model is delivery of “theory” content to the learner prior to actual attendance at a training course or programme to put the “theory” into practice. This can be a very efficient and effective method of delivery, particularly if the learners are unable to attend traditional classroom type sessions. This mixture of methods reflects the hybrid nature of teaching and learning. A significant advantage of a blended programme is the ability to cater to individual needs. An individual could receive additional information and training through extra e-learning programmes whilst still attending classroom training with other students. Design and development of effective blended learning environments depend on sound instructional analysis or instructional design.

Benefit to the Sri Lankan Rural Masses

With major initiatives launched through the Information and Communication Technology Agency (ICTA) and the ADB-funded Distance Education Modernisation Project (DEMP) and other similar initiatives to deliver various educational and training content through satellite technology, broadband communication networks and the regular Internet, it becomes increasingly feasible to implement bended learning for the benefit of the rural masses of the country. It is quite possible to deliver relevant and useful educational and training content through the above mentioned new technology for the benefit of the learners throughout the country. The content could include materials for improvement of general skills such as English knowledge and computer literacy as well as specific skills such as repair and maintenance of automobiles, computers, etc., house wiring and eletrical maintenance, house building, etc. However, those who are familiar with distance learning are quite aware of the main hardships the learners face. The lack of tutor support and feedback top the distance learners' list of concerns.

How can we tackle this issue with the help of blended learning? As mentioned above the "theory" part of the learning task can be delivered through the technology. How can the tutor support and feedback be provided to the learners? The way to go about with this issue may be to use a blended learning approach. It is possible to meet the above learner needs through a combination of online tutor and face-to-face tutor support. Face-to-face tutor support can be provided at venues such as Open University's regional, study and teaching centres, technical colleges, 'nenasalas' and any other appropriate public and private sector educational and training establishments. With such a blended learning setting, a large portion of the country's population is going to benefit from the new technology and the country can steadily move towards its vision to become a knowledge-based economy.

However, the challenges associated with such an endeavour include the design and development of suitable indigenous learning content suitable for delivery through digital technology and design and implementation of pedagogically sound blended learning environments that will result in successful learning outcomes.

About the author:

Dr. Gamini Padmaperuma, a former Senior Lecturer at the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL), holds a PhD from the University of Canterbury in New Zealand in Instructional Design for Computer-Based Learning. He can be contacted through email: gaminipad@yahoo.com and website: www.gaminionline.com

The Path to Peace: Equal Access to Quality Education for All

By Shiranee Dissanayake

Today, Sri Lanka stands at the brink of a very decisive turning point in its history. In the months ahead, hopefully, the foundation will be laid at a political level to finally eliminate the inequalities, and discriminations, resulting from prejudices, misconceptions, biases and myths, which have hitherto plagued the thinking of the political leadership, the rebel groups and civil society alike.

The outcome of the initial talks are indeed encouraging, where consensus has been reached in several areas. If properly implemented it will go a long way in helping to put an end to hostilities and pave the way towards peace. However, the crucial question is; can political consensus alone bring about the climate necessary for peace?

In a rapidly advancing global environment where the focus is on creating knowledge societies and where competition is rising, absence of war alone will not bring about the peace and contentment that the people of this country are yearning for. The course of events that have led to the current situation has demonstrated that one of the principal factors that have spawned this sense of discrimination is the feeling of inequality among marginalized groups. This has been further compounded by inherited prejudices, misconceptions, biases and myths nurtured along its way by elements with vested interests within all communities.

Marginalization, however, is not limited to any one community. Most people in the developing world are cocooned within closed communities with little or no interaction with the outside world. This has resulted in alienation among communities even within one country. It is no secret that the majority of people in the developing world are excluded from the processes that determine their future. Poverty, social exclusion, lack of opportunity, lack of access to knowledge and information and the inability to make their voices heard are some of the main factors which have contributed towards alienating them from the rest of the world. Undoubtedly the most effective means of breaking the barriers of alienation is equal access to knowledge, information and communication.

As the country is poised to usher in a new era of peace, the time is now ripe to start on a new course by setting in motion new strategies based on the lessons learnt. It is vital that the future generations are provided with the tools of empowerment to reflect, discern, and act to better their lot in life, which will inevitably help to establish and sustain a lasting peace.

Maria Montessori shed some light on the path to peace when she said, “establishing a lasting peace is the work of education. All politics can do is to keep us out of war”. Orienting the future generations towards healthy mental attitudes, and behaviour and guiding them in the path to peace is the work of education, and will have to begin at the Montessori stage itself.

The recent peace talks have initiated action to put an end to hostilities between the government and the LTTE. Now, it is for the planners to ensure that the future generations that will constitute the political leadership as well as the civil society of this country are correctly oriented towards peace and are ready to meet the local and global challenges of the future. In this context the main problem that has to be attacked at the very root is social exclusion, which results from poverty.

Poverty deprives people of opportunities to better themselves through education. Fortunately the unprecedented advances in information and communication technology have made it possible for international knowledge to be made available to everyone irrespective of their position, gender, social or financial standing. The fact that knowledge can be accessed from any location at any time opens up a wide range of opportunities for those who do not have the ability to travel to centres of learning due to cultural, economic or other reasons. ICT therefore transcends the barriers of distance, poverty and deprivation and opens up opportunities for e- learning which is one way of opening the floodgates of education and information to all. It is left to the political will of those who wield the reins of power, to provide this opportunity to marginalized groups if further alienation is to be averted.

Massive efforts are currently underway in Sri Lanka to give connectivity to rural areas and provide the necessary infrastructure and ICT training to the villages, affording rural communities to be integrated into the knowledge society. However, achieving the desired results in producing a peace- oriented quality leadership and a quality civil society, demands proper orientation through quality education. This involved giving them skills of interacting discerning and reasoning, and developing self-discipline, integrity, honesty, respect, tolerance, and empathy and the ability to compete with global competitors among others.

The vital factors in this equation are English Language Competency and Computer Literacy coupled with quality trainers or teachers who are adequately equipped to facilitate e- learning.

As the country stands at the cross roads of peace, the time has come for all including the political leadership, parents, teachers and others involved in the national planning process such as the public service and the media to get their act together. It is time to realize the vital importance of bringing up the future generations as knowledgeable, individuals with healthy mental attitudes and put into action a national plan to empower marginalized societies to achieve social justice through equal access to quality education which is a vital pre-requisite for a lasting peace.

e-Learning: Potential and Challenges

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